Effects of Martial Arts on Young Children Disadvantages of Martial Arts

• Journal List
• J Sports Sci Med
• five.9(iv); 2010 Dec
• PMC3761807

J Sports Sci Med. 2010 Dec; 9(4): 528–537.

Published online 2010 Dec i.

The Social-Psychological Outcomes of Martial Arts Do Among Youth: A Review

Received 2010 May 20; Accustomed 2010 Aug half-dozen.

Abstract

Martial arts involvement among the youth has been described in controversial terms. Studies regarding the effects of martial arts practise on youth testify contrasting images. While some refer to enhanced personal and social opportunities for those that participate, others warn against increased levels of aggressiveness and antisocial behavior among its participants. The aim of the present review is to provide, firstly, an overview of the major findings of studies concerning the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise. Secondly, the limitations of those studies are discussed. From more 350 papers, collected during a two-yr lasting literature study, 27 papers met all criteria to be included in this study. This review revealed that even though a considerable amount of research on social-psychological outcomes of martial arts exercise has been conducted over the years, to date, it has not brought clarity in the existing duality regarding the possible effects of martial arts involvement. It is proposed that a meliorate agreement can be provided if specific influential factors are taken into account in future research (i.east., participants' characteristics, type of guidance, social context and structural qualities of the sport).

Key points

• Many common beliefs be about the positive and negative outcomes of martial arts practise.

• Studies regarding the effects of martial arts exercise on youth show contrasting images.

• Several influential factors take to be taken into account when examining the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise.

Central words: Martial arts, youth, personality traits.

Introduction

Martial arts involvement in full general can be described in controversial terms. Commonly held perceptions on the value of involvement in martial arts are mixed. As indicated by some, these mutual beliefs with regard to martial arts are oftentimes largely based on perceptions obtained through the media and entertainment industry (Smith, 1999). It has been pointed out that popular media have created a distorted prototype of martial arts for (commercial) entertainment purposes (Fuller, 1988; Grady, 1998; Stickney, 2005).

The duality in the perception regarding the effects of martial arts is perhaps even more than credible when it involves youth. On the one side, martial arts involvement is believed to provide positive learning opportunities for youth in general, likewise as with regard to specific target groups. For case, a study among member countries of the European Physical Education Association (EUPEA) indicated that in the majority of countries, martial arts are introduced during concrete instruction classes in secondary schools, because it is believed that martial arts involvement tin provide positive educational opportunities to pupils (Theeboom and De Knop, 1999). Also, specific initiatives take been fix in several countries in which educators and welfare workers make use of martial arts in their work with socially deprived youth (Abrahams, 2004; Bosch, 2008; Theeboom et al., 2008; Zivin et al., 2001). Still on the other side, the human relationship between (some) martial arts and adolescents has been regarded by others as problematic due to an assumed relationship with negative socialization processes. Consider the sport of boxing as an example. Several authors take pleaded for a ban of this sport for youth under the historic period of sixteen years on medical, philosophical and upstanding grounds (e.m., American University of Pediatrics, 1997; Pearn, 1998). Pearn, 1998, for example, proposed that "… there is no place in contemporary gild for a youth sport which has, as its primary goal, the infliction of acute brain damage on an opponent" (p. 311). This perspective becomes even more apparent in light of the then-called "desportization "within the martial arts (Bottenburg and Heilbron, 2006), equally immature participants seem to become increasingly involved in harder martial arts (eastward.g., Thai boxing, mixed martial arts). This tendency is conspicuously visible in Thailand, where children aged betwixt five and nine take role in Thai boxing and starting professional fights at effectually 12 to fourteen years sometime (David, 2005).

Some researchers have also provided evidence for the negative effects of martial arts interest among adolescents. For example, a Norwegian written report concluded that participating in power sports such equally weightlifting, wrestling and oriental martial arts (karate, judo, and taekwondo) leads to an increase in antisocial behavior in youth (Endresen and Olweus, 2005). These results led to a slap-up deal of controversy in a number of countries leading into vehement discussions in various media and on the net regarding the declared effects of the practice of martial arts on the young participant, ranging from very positive to very negative. However, some researchers made comments on the Norwegian study's methodology (Sleijfer, 2005; Theeboom et al., 2008). For example, doubts have been raised nigh the validity of the self-equanimous questionnaire and an absence of specifying which blazon of guidance used within the selected power sports. It has likewise been argued that it is difficult to brand general statements using the evidence from this written report as a dandy diversity of sports was selected in this written report (e.g., weightlifting compared to martial arts).

The information presented to a higher place indicates that uncertainties be regarding social- psychological outcomes of martial arts do on immature participants. Information technology is therefore worthwhile to review findings of the major studies dealing with this topic.

Popularity of martial arts

Martial arts (due east.k., judo, karate, taekwondo, kickboxing) participation has universal appeal. For example, in France, kingdom of the netherlands, Canada, Finland, Australia and Belgium martial arts are on a list of the ten most skillful sports amidst children and adolescents (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009; Ministère de la jeunesse des sports et de la vie associative, 2005; Nederlandse Hartstichting and NOC*NSF, 2007; Tammelin et al., 2003; Warren, 2008; Wolt et al., 2007). Martial arts have likewise been ranked among the ten most adept sports in a society context (Bottenburg et al., 2005; Ministère de la jeunesse des sports et de la vie associative, 2002).

The popularity of martial arts has helped contribute to a growing interest in martial arts enquiry over the years, which tin be illustrated through a number of ways. Firstly, there are indications that in contempo years more than papers on martial arts are presented at sports scientific congresses. For example, Distaso and his colleagues (2009) examined the number of oral and poster presentations on martial arts at the annual conference of the European College of Sport Science (ECSS) and noticed a pregnant growth between 1999 and 2008.

Secondly, in recent years an increased number of scientific meetings with regard to martial arts have been organized. Side by side to conferences on martial arts in full general (east.g., "Scientific Congress on Martial Arts and Combat Sports"; "World Congress on Combat Sports and Martial Arts", "International Scientific Conference of Experts - Researchers on Martial Arts and Humanists"), besides scientific gatherings with regard to one particular martial arts fashion are being organized (e.g., "International Science of Judo Symposium"; "International Congress on Wrestling and Traditional Games"; "International Symposium on Science and Taekwondo"; "International Symposium of Traditional Karate, Budo Arts and Combat Sports").

Thirdly, it is interesting to notation that in recent years the number of scientific publications regarding martial arts has increased as well. For example, there are currently a number of specific international journals reporting on martial arts research (eastward.g., "Journal of Asian Martial Arts", "Archives of Budo", "Journal of Chinese Martial Studies", "IDO Movement for Culture", "Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences", "Classical Fighting Arts"). In add-on, the Journal of Sport Science and Medicine has published a number of special editions on martial arts.

Despite the increased attending among scientists for martial arts studies, until at present simply a limited number of literature reviews have been published regarding this research (due east.g., Cox, 1993; Fuller, 1988; Gutiérrez García and Pérez Gutiérrez, 2009; Henning, 1999; Pieter, 1994). These reviews covered a wide range of scientific disciplines (e.1000., biomechanics, psychology, history, physiology, sociology, pedagogy, epidemiology of injuries) and paucities in certain domains take been reported. For example, Pieter, 1994 concluded that pedagogical inquiry in martial arts was sorely lacking and Fuller, 1988 claimed that due to their negative public image, martial arts have been largely neglected as a focus of psychological research. Equally these reviews are more than than 15 years sometime, it is interesting to acquire about more recent martial arts research. Amid other things, it would be worthwhile to specifically focus on young martial artists, as several studies accept reported an increased percentage of adolescents involved in martial arts. For example, in the Netherlands it was constitute that approximately 55% of those practicing a martial fine art in a social club setting, was youth (Breedveld et al., 2008) and in Finland the percentage of youth membership in martial arts clubs fluctuated betwixt 64% and 86% (Tammelin et al., 2003).

Methods

Considering controversial feelings regarding the effects of martial arts exercise on immature people, it is relevant to gain more insight in the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts involvement among youth by reviewing the existing enquiry on this topic. Literature was collected over a two-year period. Autonomously from a number of secondary sources (e.thou., enquiry reviews), literature information were primarily collected through computer and transmission searches of primary sources (e.grand., periodical manufactures, theses and dissertations) in the areas of sport sociology, psychology, pedagogy and philosophy.

For the computer search, online databases (e.g., SportDiscus, ERIC, Academic Search Elite) were combed pairing principal keywords, such equally martial arts, judo, aikido, kick-/Thai battle, battle, taekwondo, karate, children, youth, adolescents, outcomes, effects, motivation, teaching fashion, educational activity arroyo, participation, motives and aggression. In addition, the reference listing of the studies obtained, were examined for additional potentially relevant articles not previously located. The literature search resulted in a database of 380 published likewise as unpublished papers in full, nerveless from 107 dissimilar journals, of which 209 papers coming from 79 different journals, specifically focused on martial arts.

To be included in the review conducted every bit office of the present report, a study had to meet seven criteria. Firstly, only those studies measuring social-psychological outcomes of practicing a martial art are included. For example, this means that studies looking at the therapeutic values of martial arts are not discussed in this review (for such a review, see Burke et al., 2007). Secondly, studies in which martial arts were incorporated as part of a larger intervention program, were excluded from this review (e.g. Glanz, 1994; Smith et al., 1999; Twemlow et al., 2008) as limited testify could be provided that measured outcomes were specifically attributed to martial arts practise. Thirdly, studies evaluating cocky-defence programs were also excluded as Brecklin, 2008 recently reviewed the majority of these studies. Fourthly, when the used methodology was not presented clearly or when a written report had many limitations (as concluded by the authors), they were omitted from this review (eastward.g., Delva-Tauiliili, 1995; Strayhorn and Strayhorn, 2009). Fifthly, every bit only few studies focused on specific target groups, such as persons with disabilities (east.g., Conant et al., 2008; Martin, 2002) or fabricated utilise of a qualitative inquiry methodology (due east.1000., interviews) (Konzak and Klavora, 1980; Theeboom et al., 2008; 2009), none of this research was included in this review equally no meaningful comparison would be possible. Sixthly, the focus is on studies conducted from the mid '90s onwards, as the older ones were mostly included in the previous reviews (such as Cox, 1993; Fuller, 1988; Pieter, 1994). Yet, to enable a comparison with more than recent inquiry, major findings of these older studies were included likewise. Seventhly (and finally), the review covers only research that has been published in English, Dutch or French. Studies written in another language were not discussed in the review (e.g., Matsumoto et al., 2006; Matsumoto and Konno, 2005). The final selection resulted in 27 studies that will be reviewed below (12 studies before and xv studies after the mid '90s).

The results of this literature study will be described in the present review, which consists of 2 parts. In the first office, studies reporting the possible furnishings of martial arts practise on participants will be discussed. However, the bulk of these studies cannot determine to what extent the observed furnishings can be attributed to the practise of a martial art since several methodological and conceptual limitations can be noticed. The second part of this review will focus specifically on these restrictions. Finally, a conclusion is presented and recommendations are provided for farther investigation.

Social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise

Firstly, a number of trends can be noticed with regard to themes, groups of participants and methodologies in martial arts research. Studies regarding social- psychological furnishings of martial arts do engagement back to the tardily 60'southward and the early 70's (e.one thousand., Kroll and Carlson, 1967; Pyecha, 1970). These before studies focused on personal characteristics of martial artists, how these characteristics determined preferences for specific types of martial arts and the extent in which they changed as a outcome of martial arts involvement. Since then, more researchers accept go interested in the outcomes of martial arts practise. Interestingly, for a number of reasons, a turning bespeak in martial arts enquiry tin be detected around the mid '90s. For instance firstly, while earlier studies focused on martial arts involvement in general, in more than contempo years attention shifted to outcomes of martial arts practice among children and adolescents. More than sixty% of more than recent papers and reports that were analyzed, addressed youth, whereas less than twenty% of the studies conducted before the mid '90s examined this issue. Secondly, a shift tin exist noticed regarding the type of martial arts nether study. Previously, the majority of studies focused on traditional martial arts (e.g., judo, karate, taekwondo), while in more contempo years a growing interest for (harder) Western martial arts can be noted (due east.g., battle, mixed martial arts). Thirdly, an evolution in the used methodology can be noticed as well. While until the mid '90s, virtually studies made use of cross-exclusive designs (viz, 92% of the older studies included in this review), in later years more longitudinal studies have been set upwardly (viz, xl% of the studies conducted subsequently the mid '90s). And fourthly, throughout the years, the type of social-psychological outcomes under study changed. While about of the before studies primarily looked at the influence of martial arts practise on a variety of personality traits of practitioners (viz, 58% of the studies conducted before the mid '90s), in recent years the accent is more than on the relationship between martial artists and aggression (viz, 61% of all studies that were analyzed).

In the following section an overview is presented of empirical studies with regard to social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practice, in which, among other things, results and used methodology will be examined more closely.

Studies examining different personality traits, such as self-confidence, cocky-balls, anxiety level, and self-regulation are discussed first (Tabular array 1). Later on, inquiry regarding the relation between martial arts practise and aggressive behavior is looked at because of its increased attending by researchers in contempo years (Table 2).

Table i

Overview of selected studies on martial arts and personality aits.

Year	Author	Sample size	Target grouping*	Methodology	Martial art	Measured effect	Positive or negative effect among MA†
1978	Duthie et al.	152	General	Cantankerous-sectional (level of feel)	Karate, other martial arts (non specified)	Self-confidence, dominance, autonomy, achievement, …	Positive among advanced MA
1980	Konzak & Klavora	84	Full general	Cross-sectional (level of experience)	Karate	General development (personality factors and physical well-existence)	Positive among advanced MA
1986	Richman & Rehberg	60	General	Cantankerous-sectional (level of experience + performance)	Karate	Self-esteem	Positive amidst advanced and successful MA‡
1986	Trulson	34	Youth	Longitudinal (type of guidance)	Taekwondo	Anxiety, self-esteem and social adroitness	Positive among traditional MA
1989	McGowan & Miller	107	Full general	Cantankerous-sectional (level of performance)	Karate	Aroused	Positive among less successful MA‡
1990	Layton	93	Full general	Cross-exclusive (level of feel)	Karate	Trait and country anxiety	Positive among advanced MA
1993	Kurian et al.	30	Full general	Cross-sectional (level of feel)	Taekwondo	Anxiety and independence	Positive among advanced MA
1994	Kurian et al.	72	Youth	Cross-exclusive (level of feel)	Taekwondo	Self-reliance and enthusiastic optimism	Positive amidst advanced MA
2003	Najafi	118	Full general	Cantankerous-sectional (type of guidance)	Karate	Humility and overall levels of promise	Positive among traditional MA
2004	Lakes & Hoyt	193	Youth	Longitudinal(school-linked program)	Taekwondo, command	Cognitive and affective self-regulation, prosocial behavior, classroom conduct, performance on a mental math test	Positive over time among MA
2007	Kuan & Roy	40	Full general	Cross-sectional (level of performance)	Wushu	Self-confidence and energy control	Positive among successful MA‡
2007	Wargo et al.	40	General	Cantankerous-exclusive (level of experience)	Taekwondo, karate	Self-esteem	Neither positive nor negative
2009	Steyn & Roux	72	Youth	Cross-sectional (comparison different groups)	Taekwondo,hockey,non-sport group	Personal growth and self-credence	Positive among MA

Table two

Overview of selected studies on martial arts and assailment.

Year	Author	Sample size	Target grouping*	Methodology	Martial art	Measured result	Positive or negative effect among MA†
1980	Rothpearl	152	General	Cross-exclusive (level of experience)	Karate	Hostility	Positive among advanced MA
1981	Nosanchuk	41	General	Cross-sectional (level of feel)	Karate	Aggressive fantasy	Positive amidst avant-garde MA
1990	Daniels & Thornton	80	General	Cross-sectional (level of experience)+ (comparison unlike martial arts)	Karate, ju jitsu, badminton, rugby, command	Hostility	Positive among avant-garde MA
1991	Skelton et al.	68	Youth	Cantankerous-sectional (level of experience)	Taekwondo	Aggressiveness	Positive amongst avant-garde MA
1992	Daniels & Thornton	79	General	Cross-exclusive (level of experience)	Karate, ju jitsu, badminton, rugby	Hostility	Positive amid advanced MA
1994	Edelman	15	Youth	Longitudinal (school-linked program)	Aikido	Hostility and aggressiveness	Positive over time amidst MA
1999	Lamarre & Nosanchuk	51	General	Cantankerous-exclusive (level of experience)	Judo	Aggressiveness	Positive amongst advanced MA
2001	Björkqvist & Varhama	319	Full general	Cross-exclusive (comparison unlike martial arts)	Karate, wrestling and boxing, not-contact sports, no sports	Attitudes towards violent conflict resolution	Positive amidst male person, negative among female person karateka
2001	Zivin et al.	60	Youth	Longitudinal (school-linked program)	Kempo	Hostility and aggressiveness	Positive over time among MA
2001	Reynes & Lorant	150	Youth	Cross-exclusive (comparison different martial arts)	Judo, karate, control	Aggressiveness	No difference compared to control (judo more anger than control)
2002	Reynes & Lorant (a)	eight	Youth	Longitudinal	Judo, command	Aggressiveness	Negative compared to control group
2002	Reynes & Lorant (b)	nine	Youth	Longitudinal	Karate, control	Aggressiveness	No effect compared to control, positive upshot compared to judoka
2004	Reynes & Lorant	43	Youth	Longitudinal (comparing different martial arts)	Judo, karate	Aggressiveness	No effect amongst karate, negative amongst judo
2005	Endresen & Olweus	477	Youth	Longitudinal	Boxing, weightlifting, wrestling, oriental martial arts, non-participants	Trigger-happy and hating behavior	Negative among MA
2007	Wargo et al.	40	General	Cantankerous-sectional (level of experience)	Taekwondo,karate	Aggressiveness	Neither positive nor negative
2009	Steyn & Roux	72	Youth	Cross-exclusive (comparison different groups)	Taekwondo, hockey, not-participants	Verbal aggression and hostility	Positive amidst MA

Personality traits

Most research looking at personality profiles of martial artists used a cross-sectional design. A number of these studies have compared personality traits according to the performance level of martial artists (e.g., winning or losing a competition, earning a trophy or a medal) (due east.grand., McGowan and Miller, 1989; Richman and Rehberg, 1986). In an earlier written report, Richman and Rehberg, 1986 showed that the level of performance had a positive impact on personality traits of participants (eastward.g., higher cocky-esteem). Effectually the same period, McGowan and Miller, 1989 reported that successful competitors showed more anger than less successful ones. Nevertheless, in this study acrimony was used in a positive mode, namely the free energy needed to win a karate contest. It is not possible to infer from these findings that competitors remain feeling angry. More contempo studies (e.thousand., Kuan and Roy, 2007) made use of a similar enquiry methodology and revealed positive findings. Kuan and Roy, 2007 used the "Psychological Functioning Inventory "(PPI) to examine differences in self-confidence and negative free energy control amongst wushu athletes (medallist compared to non-medallist). Results revealed that medallists scored significantly higher on self-confidence and negative free energy control than not-medallists. Consequently, it was also ended that successful athletes reported more positive outcomes on personality traits than less successful athletes.

Instead of dividing the sample according to level of performance, a number of researchers examined differences in personality traits of martial artists between different teaching styles (i.e., traditional versus modern training methods). While a traditional approach was defined as focusing on meditative aspects, stressing self-control, disharmonize avoidance, respect for others, kata preparation, and the study of philosophy, modern preparation was described as emphasizing sport and competitive aspects, too as focusing teaching to physical aspects only (Donohue and Taylor, 1994; Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989).

In an before report, Trulson, 1986 suggested that traditional martial arts practise has a positive influence on personality traits of participants, as opposed to training in modern martial arts. More recently, Najafi, 2003 besides divided his sample equally a function of teaching styles and came to similar conclusions. His findings revealed that practitioners of traditional martial arts emphasize more humility and report more overall levels of hope compared to those involved in modern martial arts. In this report, promise was defined as "…the motivation to achieve the harsh task "(p. 25).

The majority of studies that employ a cross-exclusive design to examine personality profiles of martial artists dissever samples as a function of level of feel in a specific martial art (e.g., belt colour or length of martial arts involvement). Studies conducted before the mid '90s indicated clear similarities in their conclusions, in which length of training was found to have a positive bear upon on personality traits of martial artists (e.g., Duthie et al., 1978; Konzak and Klavora, 1980; Kurian et al., 1993; Layton, 1990; Richman and Rehberg, 1986). Still, a number of studies conducted in more recent years resulted in less consistent findings. For example, in Wargo et al. 'south study (2007) black and xanthous chugalug taekwondo-in were asked to fill out the "Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory ii "(MMPI-2). No bear witness for improved self-esteem with rank was found. Furthermore, the authors suggested that the participants included in their study had no more self-esteem issues than the general population.

A number of more contempo studies, using a similar research methodology, take focused on the influence of martial arts on personality profiles among adolescents. For example, Steyn and Roux, 2009 compared the psychological well-existence of taekwondo-in, hockey players and a not-sport group. Adolescents between the ages of 15 to eighteen years were asked to administer the "Psychological Well-beingness Questionnaire". Results indicated that the personal growth and self-credence scores of taekwondo- in were significantly higher than those of the hockey players and the not-sport group. Some other study, conducted by Kurian et al., 1994, found similar results among taekwondo participants. They used the "Children's Personality Questionnaire "and found that longer times in taekwondo training were associated with more self-reliance and enthusiastic optimism. Lakes and Hoyt, 2004 using a longitudinal enquiry design to measure out the impact of schoolhouse-based taekwondo preparation on self-regulatory abilities plant that after a 3-calendar month intervention, participants of taekwondo showed greater improvements than a command grouping in areas of cognitive and affective cocky-regulation, prosocial behavior, classroom conduct and performance on a mental math test.

In general, enquiry conducted after the mid '90s and focusing on youth showed that martial arts exercise has positive furnishings on the personality profiles of adolescents, which clearly confirms findings of earlier studies.

Aggression

Although about of the before studies focused on personality traits of martial artists in general, some authors specifically looked at the relationship betwixt martial arts and aggressive behavior (Daniels and Thornton, 1990; 1992; Nosanchuk, 1981; Rothpearl, 1980; Skelton et al., 1991). In full general, it was concluded that longer training was associated with lower levels of aggressiveness.

Contrary to earlier inquiry, but a few of the more recent studies made use of a cross-sectional design. For example, Lamarre and Nosanchuk, 1999 used the "Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Test "and responses to hostile or frustrating situations to examine the aggressiveness among judoka. Their results revealed that aggressiveness decreased beyond training, likewise every bit beyond age, with gender having no effect. Consequently, findings were consequent with those of the previous studies. However, Wargo et al., 2007 failed to support previous findings. In their study the "Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory two "(MMPI-2) was used to assess the personalities of yellow and black belt taekwondo-in and karateka. Information technology was reported that participants were no more probable to view ambiguous situations every bit warranting retaliation compared to the general population.

Instead of dividing the sample equally a function of level of feel, Björkqvist and Varhama, 2001 made a comparison between different types of martial arts. Attitudes towards tearing disharmonize resolution were examined among female person and male person practitioners of dissimilar styles of martial arts (karateka compared to wrestlers and boxers), practitioners of non-contact sports and controls who did not do any sport. Results indicated that martial arts practise had positive effects on male, only negative effects on female participants when compared to participants in a control group.

As indicated earlier, in recent years more than researchers have become interested in the relationship of martial arts practice and aggressiveness among children and adolescents. Contrary to more than general studies and those conducted in earlier years, a majority of the inquiry involving adolescents made utilise of a longitudinal research blueprint with fourth dimension between pre- and postal service-testing ranging approximately from 2 months to 2 years. It is also interesting to note that several of these longitudinal studies take set an experimental design in which martial art instruction was provided to adolescents with no prior martial arts feel and were aimed at examining changes in aggressive behavior over the class of the program. In near cases, specific target groups were used, such as middle or uncomplicated school youth at risk (Edelman, 1994; Zivin et al., 2001). All these studies reported positive outcomes, with decreased mail-examination scores on hostility and assailment. While nearly of these studies made utilize of martial arts in general, only a few have investigated differences between specific styles of martial arts. For instance, Reynes and Lorant (2001; 2002a; 2002b; 2004) compared changes in aggressiveness of children practicing either judo or karate. Later on a ane- and ii-yr practise period, they reported distinct contrary findings betwixt the two martial arts, namely young karateka did not differ from a command group, whereas immature judoka were establish to be more aggressive than both the command and the karate group. Also Endresen and Olweus, 2005 reported negative effects every bit a result of martial arts practise amidst youth. Every bit reported earlier, they conducted a longitudinal study in which they examined the relationship between participation in so-called "ability sports "and violent and antisocial behavior among preadolescent and adolescent boys over a 2-year period. These ability sports included boxing, weightlifting, wrestling and oriental martial arts. Their findings showed that participation in these sports lead to an increment in antisocial involvement outside the sports situation with no indications of selection furnishings. The authors suggested that these negative effects stemmed both from the practise of power sports itself, as well as from the repeated contact with a "manlike "culture prevalent in the sporting clubs. As before indicated, Endresen and Olweus' study has been criticized past others.

Finally, just a few studies made utilize of a cantankerous- sectional design to measure the aggressiveness among immature martial artists. For instance, Steyn and Roux, 2009 used the "Osculation and Perry Aggression Questionnaire "to examine the aggression levels of 15 to xviii year old taekwondo-in compared to hockey players and a non-sport group of the same age category. Findings revealed that the verbal aggression and hostility scores of taekwondo participants were significantly lower than the other two groups.

In conclusion, most studies investigating the relationship betwixt martial arts practise and aggressiveness revealed positive outcomes, in a general population, as well as specifically for adults or for adolescents. However, findings are non always consistent with ane some other, since some studies reported that martial arts would have no or even negative effects on the aggressiveness of participants.

Limitations

Examining effects of sports participation is complex as several factors (e.thousand., type of guidance, structural qualities of the sport, etc.) can be expected to have an influence. As a effect, this kind of inquiry has several methodological and conceptual limitations, which volition exist discussed below.

Several studies, which fabricated use of a cross-exclusive design to compare personality traits of martial arts practitioners at different levels of feel, practise not seem to command for self-choice effects (e.g., Kurian et al., 1993; Steyn and Roux, 2009; Wargo et al., 2007). It is probable that participants in those studies selected martial arts training because it was consistent with their personal tendencies. Information technology is likewise possible that adolescents whose values and beliefs were non in melody with those of the called martial art, would almost likely decide to surrender practice. As indicated past several authors (e.g., Cox, 1993; Fuller, 1988), it is therefore better to conduct longitudinal studies. Notwithstanding, this kind of design too has its limitations. Among other things, it is time-consuming and information technology remains difficult to command the period between the starting time and second measurement and to forestall the context from changing (e.k., drop- out, changing of the martial art instructor, etc.) (Gravetter and Forzano, 2009). For example, in the study of Reynes and Lorant, 2002a almost one 3rd of the total sample dropped-out during the one twelvemonth of judo practise. Nosanchuk and Lamarre (2002) indicated in their comments on this study that those who persisted, may be more than aggressive than those who dropped-out, which could exist an explanation for the observed outcomes. It tin besides be noted that differences announced regarding the length of the intervention. While a number of studies take used a i- or 2-month period (Edelman, 1994: 12 weeks; Lakes and Hoyt, 2004: sixteen weeks; Zivin et al., 2001: 10 weeks), others raised questions about these short-term effects. For instance, Nosanchuk and Lamarre (2002) argued that more than one year of training would be required to assess whatsoever meaningful variations. Also other authors suggested that it takes several years of training to obtain positive outcomes (e.g., Konzak and Klavora, 1980; Layton, 1990). In addition, only a few researchers accept conducted a follow-upwards report to appraise whether martial artists' changes in personality, psychological and behavioral characteristics are long-lasting (e.m., Zivin et al., 2001). Information technology is also interesting to note that some researchers reported pregnant effects, but used small-sized samples, which may have resulted in depression statistical power (due east.g., Edelman, 1994: n = 15; Reynes and Lorant, 2002b: northward = 9). Furthermore, many studies did non take gender differences into business relationship. For example, a number of studies but investigated boys (due east.g., Endresen and Olweus, 2005; Kurian et al., 1994; Reynes and Lorant, 2002a; 2002b; 2004; Zivin et al., 2001). Merely Lakes and Hoyt, 2004 indicated that benefits received by girls may be manifested differently than those obtained by boys.

Moreover, a few studies fabricated a comparison between dissimilar martial arts styles and revealed differences along the dissimilar styles (east.yard., Björkqvist and Varhama, 2001; Daniels and Thornton, 1990; Reynes and Lorant, 2004). This finding indicates that each martial art has its own qualities, which tin can atomic number 82 to dissimilar outcomes. However, in some studies the characteristics of specific martial arts were non taken into consideration. In these cases adolescents involved in different martial arts were pooled together into 1 group and compared with a non-participation grouping (e.one thousand., Endresen and Olweus, 2005; Daniels and Thornton, 1992; Duthie et al., 1978; Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989; Wargo et al., 2007).

Finally, equally indicated past Jones, MacKay and Peters (2006), it is not only important to accept the kind of martial art into account, it is perhaps more important to look at the role played by the instructor, which can create different styles inside one martial art. The event of the martial arts being taught tin can be very dissimilar depending on who is instruction. Information technology can be noted, nevertheless, that many authors did not describe the type of guidance used within the selected martial arts (due east.g., Daniels and Thornton, 1992; Endresen and Olweus, 2005; Steyn and Roux, 2009). The few studies that explicitly referred to the blazon of guidance (e.yard., Najafi, 2003; Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989; Trulson, 1986) reported different outcomes according to the specific guidance approach that was used.

Conclusion

To date, many common beliefs with regard to the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise exist, ranging from very positive to very negative. To formulate more thoughtful and scientifically based statements, in contempo years, researchers have become more interested in martial arts. Next to an increased number of scientific meetings and publications with regard to martial arts, also a significant growth in the number of presentations on martial arts at sports scientific congresses has been detected.

Furthermore, a number of trends may be noticed regarding enquiry on social-psychological outcomes of martial arts exercise. While earlier studies focused on a more full general population, in more contempo years, there has been a shift in attention to younger participants. There has besides been more emphasis in later research on the relationship between martial arts practise and aggressive behavior and more Western martial arts accept been investigated than before.

Information technology can be argued that these trends are in line with a number of social developments, such as an increased popularity of martial arts amidst socially vulnerable youth. Hence, several pedagogues and welfare workers have used martial arts in their work with this target group and employ information technology every bit an instrument to improve their social and personal development (east.g., Fleisher et al., 1995; Ham, 2008; Nuchelmans, 2008; Theeboom et al., 2004).

The present review provides an overview of enquiry that has been conducted over the by two decades on social-psychological outcomes of martial arts interest, with youth in detail. Past enquiry has mostly pointed in the direction of the advent of positive effects, going from a higher level of self-regulation and an increased psychological well-being, to a decreased violence level among its participants. Yet, some contrasting images accept been constitute, since a few studies reported negative outcomes as a outcome of martial arts interest, such equally an increased antisocial behavior. In determination, it has non been able to provide overall conclusive evidence regarding the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise.

Nonetheless, information technology remains difficult to determine if and to what extent the practise of a martial fine art can exist accounted for the reported effects. The presumed effects cannot be attributed solely to mere sport participation, because other factors could take an influence as well. For example, the cause and issue relationship of martial arts practise also every bit the self-pick bias remain critical bug. It has been argued that it is often too difficult to make general statements about the social-psychological outcomes of sports participation, without taking several influential factors into consideration, such as the type of guidance, the structural qualities of the sport, the characteristics of the participants and the social context (Coalter, 2007; Patriksson, 1995; Shields and Bredemeier, 1995). However, the present review shows that only a few researchers have considered i or more of these influential factors.

Based on this, some proposition for future enquiry volition be proposed in the last part of this review. Regarding the structural qualities of the martial arts, it tin can be ended that some researchers accept tried to take this into consideration by making a comparison between different martial arts styles. Such studies revealed the importance of taking the specific martial arts manner being good into business relationship. Too some attending has been paid to the type of guidance, by comparing traditional with modern preparation methods. In general, the old showed more positive effects than the latter. However, in future research it would be relevant to look more closely at the different teaching styles existence used. For example, this can be linked to a specific climate that is created by the teacher's beliefs, which in turn can take an touch on on motivational responses in youth. Ames, 1992 argued that ii motivational climates tin be identified: a mastery climate, where cocky-referenced improvement and effort is focused, and a functioning climate, where pupils are encouraged to perform better than others. To date, limited enquiry has been conducted in which the motivational climate of martial arts exercise has been taken into account. Hence, in futurity enquiry it might be relevant to look at the motivational climate of different martial arts practises, between different martial arts every bit well as within ane martial art, but where different approaches have been used (traditional versus modern).

Next to the type of guidance and the structural qualities of the sport, the characteristics of the participants should also exist controlled when examining the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise. Equally Wisse, 2007 and Anthonissen and Dortants, 2006 argued, martial artists with different characteristics tin give different meanings to their martial fine art and can feel their martial arts practise in another way. Therefore, information technology is important to learn more nearly the differences of participants' characteristics. One of these differences tin exist linked to the personality traits of participants (e.g., level of self-conviction, aggressiveness). Furthermore, in the literature the characteristics of the participants are also related to the goal orientations of the participants. To engagement, two studies take examined whether accomplishment goal orientations vary as a function of the type of martial arts involvement and arrived at different conclusions. Gernigon and Le Bars, 2000 stressed the compatibility of a competitive context and task orientation, whereas King and Williams, 1997 stressed the compatibility of traditional martial arts and chore orientation. Consequently, time to come studies might accept a closer look at the human relationship betwixt the characteristics of participants and the chosen martial fine art. For example, it could be interesting to determine to what extent achievement goal orientations of adolescents practicing a harder martial art (e.g., kick-/Thai boxing) differ from those practicing a softer martial art (due east.g., aikido) [Martial arts can be classified every bit soft or hard. For instance, aikido is considered as a soft martial art, because the strength and the intention of an attack is used against the opponent, to neutralize him. While kick-/Thai boxing is considered as a hard martial fine art, because there is oft more than emphasize on parrying (or just straight blocking) an attack (which does not allow to utilise the strength of the opponent)].

Finally, the social context of the participants has also to exist taken into consideration when investigating outcomes in sports participants. It has already been described that social grade is ane of the most important factors influencing sports interest (Scheerder et al., 2005). Hence, it can be assumed that participants' socio-economical background might also have an influence on the type of martial arts involvement.

In general, hereafter studies that tin control for a number of important influencing factors might be able to provide a better understanding of the true nature of the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise for adolescents.

Biographies

Jikkemien Vertonghen

Employment

SPhD Pupil, Vrije Universiteit Brussel.

Marc Theeboom

Employment

Professor at the Kinesthesia of Concrete Pedagogy and Physiotherapy and the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium.

Research interests

Pedagogical and policy-related aspects of youth sport in general and specific target groups.

Due east-postal service: eb.ca.buv@moobeeht.cram

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3761807/

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